Unlike During the Medieval Period Church Leaders Commissioned Works of Art During the Renaissance to

Hans Holbein the Younger's Noli me tangere a relatively rare Protestant oil painting of Christ from the Reformation period. It is small, and generally naturalistic in style, fugitive iconic elements like the halo, which is barely discernible.

The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic fine art, and very oft destroyed as much of it as it could accomplish. A new creative tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist fine art produced during the High Renaissance. The Lutheran churches, equally they adult, accepted a express office for larger works of art in churches,^{[1] [ii]} and likewise encouraged prints and book illustrations. Calvinists remained steadfastly opposed to fine art in churches, and suspicious of small printed images of religious subjects, though generally fully accepting secular images in their homes.

In plough, the Cosmic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Catholic art. Protestant religious fine art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, just the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, mural painting, portrait painting and still life.

Fine art and the Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a divide in Christianity betwixt Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement "created a N-South split in Europe, where more often than not Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Cosmic."^[3]

The Reformation produced 2 main branches of Protestantism; one was the Evangelical Lutheran churches, which followed the teachings of Martin Luther, and the other the Reformed Churches, which followed the ideas of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Out of these branches grew iii main sects, the Lutheran tradition, besides as the Continental Reformed and Anglican traditions, the latter two following the Reformed (Calvinist) faith.^[4] Lutherans and Reformed Christians had different views regarding religious imagery.^{[5] [two]}

Martin Luther in Deutschland allowed and encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church every bit a continuation of the "ancient, apostolic church".^[2] The employ of images was one of the issues where Luther strongly opposed the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces like the Terminal Supper by the younger Cranach were produced in Germany, peculiarly by Luther'southward friend Lucas Cranach, to replace Catholic ones, often containing portraits of leading reformers as the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional delineation of Jesus. As such, "Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior."^[i] Lutherans connected the use of the crucifix equally information technology highlighted their high view of the Theology of the Cross.^{[2] [6]} Stories grew up of "indestructible" images of Luther, that had survived fires, by divine intervention.^[seven] Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image."^[eight]

On the other manus, there was a moving ridge of iconoclasm, or the devastation of religious imagery. This began very early on in the Reformation, when students in Erfurt destroyed a wooden altar in the Franciscan friary in December 1521.^[9] After, Reformed Christianity showed consequent hostility to religious images, as idolatry, particularly sculpture and big paintings. Volume illustrations and prints were more than adequate, because they were smaller and more than private. Reformed leaders, specially Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the control of their followers, and regarded the bang-up bulk of religious images as idolatrous.^[ten] Early Calvinists were fifty-fifty suspicious of portraits of clergy; Christopher Hales (shortly to be one of the Marian exiles) tried to have portraits of six divines sent to him from Zurich, and felt it necessary to explicate his motives in a letter of 1550: "this is not done ....with a view to making idols of you; they are desired for the reasons which I have mentioned, and not for the sake of honor or veneration".^[11]

The destruction was frequently extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable concrete manifestation, oftentimes imposed from above, that could not exist ignored. It was but for this reason that reformers favoured a single dramatic insurrection, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility between Catholics and Calvinists in communities – for information technology was by and large at the level of the city, town or village that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland.

But reformers frequently felt impelled past strong personal convictions, as shown by the example of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to advise. She was a Swiss lady who had once made a hope to Saint Apollinaris that if she recovered from an illness she would donate an image of the saint to a local convent, which she did. Afterwards she turned Protestant, and feeling she must reverse what she now saw as a wrong action, she went to the convent church, removed the statue and burnt it. Prosecuted for blasphemy, she paid a small-scale fine without complaint, only flatly refused to pay the additional sum the courtroom ordered be paid to the convent to replace the statue, putting her at take chances of serious penalties. Zwingli's letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did not replace the statue, but the eventual outcome is unknown.^[12] Past the cease of his life, after iconoclastic shows of strength became a feature of the early phases of the French Wars of Organized religion, even Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had become counter-productive.^[13]

Daniel Hisgen's paintings are by and large cycles on the parapets of Lutheran church galleries. Here the Creation (left) to the Annunciation can exist seen.

Subjects prominent in Catholic art other than Jesus and events in the Bible, such as Mary and saints were given much less emphasis or disapproved of in Protestant theology. Equally a outcome, in much of northern Europe, the Church virtually ceased to commission figurative fine art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the hands of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism fifty-fifty objected to non-religious funerary art, such as the heraldry and effigies honey of the Renaissance rich.^[14] Where there was religious art, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, especially as volume illustrations and prints, and, subsequently, moralistic depictions of modern life were preferred. Both Cranachs painted allegorical scenes setting out Lutheran doctrines, in item a series on Law and Gospel. Daniel Hisgen, a German Rococo painter of the 18th century in Upper Hesse, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were also oftentimes painted with similar scenes to those in Catholic churches.

Lutherans strongly defended their existing sacred fine art from a new moving ridge of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the second half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "Second Reformation" of nigh 1560–1619.^{[2] [15]} Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "You black Calvinist, you lot give permission to blast our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash y'all and your Calvinist priests in return".^[two] The Beeldenstorm, a large and very hell-raising wave of Calvinist mob destruction of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summertime of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions.^[sixteen] This entrada of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Deutschland and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.^[17] Similar patterns to the German language deportment, but with the addition of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national regime, were seen in Anglican England in the English Civil State of war and English Democracy in the next century, when more harm was washed to fine art in medieval parish churches than during the English Reformation.

A major theological difference between Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and wine into the body and blood of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the quondam every bit a sacramental wedlock and the latter as a pneumatic presence.^[18] Protestant churches that were not participating in the iconoclasm ofttimes selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper. This helped the worshippers to think their theology behind the Eucharist, as opposed to Catholic churches, which frequently chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the cede of Christ and the cede of the Mass were one and the same, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.

The Protestant Reformation likewise capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass-produced and widely available to the public at low price. This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The Protestant church was therefore able, as the Cosmic Church building had been doing since the early 15th century, to bring their theology to the people, and religious education was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a direct link between the worshippers and the divine.

There was besides a violent propaganda war fought partly with popular prints by both sides; these were often highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were popular, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such as the Terminal Supper.

Genre and landscape [edit]

After the early years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although there was a witting effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible illustration in volume illustrations and prints. In the early Reformation artists, particularly Cranach the Elder and Younger and Holbein, made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very like to Cosmic saints. Later Protestant taste turned from the brandish in churches of religious scenes, although some connected to be displayed in homes. There was besides a reaction against large images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of high style at the fourth dimension. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the present times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully blossom in the 17th century began during this period.

Peter Bruegel (1525–1569) of Flanders is the smashing genre painter of his time, who worked for both Cosmic and Protestant patrons. In almost of his paintings, even when depicting religious scenes, most space is given to landscape or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel's Hymeneals Banquet, portrays a Flemish-peasant wedding dinner in a befouled, which makes no reference to whatsoever religious, historical or classical events, and but gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Another great painter of his age, Lucas van Leyden (1489–1533), is known mostly for his engravings, such as The Milkmaid, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to religion or classicism, although much of his other work features both.

Bruegel was also an accomplished landscape painter. Frequently Bruegel painted agricultural landscapes, such as Summer from his famous ready of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the country, with a few workers taking a lunch suspension nether a nearby tree. This type of landscape painting, apparently void of religious or classical connotations, gave birth to a long line of northern European landscape artists, such equally Jacob van Ruisdael.

With the great development of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and print publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for The Four Winds, a publishing firm owned by Hieronymus Erect. The Four Winds provided the public with almost a thousand etchings and engravings over two decades. Between 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Cock with almost 40 drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.

The courtly way of Northern Mannerism in the second one-half of the century has been seen as partly motivated by the want of rulers in both the Holy Roman Empire and French republic to find a style of art that could entreatment to members of the ladylike elite on both sides of the religious carve up.^[19] Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic effect of encouraging classical mythology in art, since though they might disapprove, even the most stern Calvinists could not credibly merits that 16th century mythological art really represented idolatry.

Council of Trent [edit]

During the Reformation a swell divergence arose betwixt the Cosmic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the n regarding the content and style of fine art work. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm as a threat to the church and in response came together at the Council of Trent to found some of their own reforms. The church felt that much religious fine art in Catholic countries (especially Italia) had lost its focus on religious subject-matter, and became likewise interested in material things and decorative qualities. The council came together periodically between 1545 and 1563. The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the footing for what is known as the Counter-Reformation.

Italian painting after the 1520s, with the notable exception of the art of Venice, adult into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated style, striving for issue, that concerned many churchman every bit lacking appeal for the mass of the population. Church pressure level to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the concluding session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to accept cracking bear upon on the development of Catholic art. Previous Catholic Church councils had rarely felt the need to pronounce on these matters, unlike Orthodox ones which have often ruled on specific types of images.

Statements are often made forth the lines of "The decrees of the Council of Trent stipulated that art was to be straight and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint'due south life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety",^[20] but in fact the bodily decrees of the council were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very curt passage dealing with fine art came only in the final session in 1563, equally a terminal infinitesimal and lilliputian-discussed addition, based on a French draft. The prescript confirmed the traditional doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, not the image, and further instructed that:

...every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust... there be nothing seen that is hell-raising, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, zippo that is profane, zippo indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the house of God. And that these things may exist the more than faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no ane be allowed to place, or cause to be placed, any unusual image, in any place, or church building, howsoever exempted, except that image have been canonical of by the bishop ...^[21]

The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, as did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian Molanus, Saint Charles Borromeo and Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, frequently going into minute particular on what was acceptable. Many traditional iconographies considered without adequate scriptural foundation were in effect prohibited, as was any inclusion of classical infidel elements in religious art, and well-nigh all nudity, including that of the infant Jesus.^[22] According to the keen medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the death of medieval art".^[23]

Art and the Counter-Reformation [edit]

While Calvinists largely removed public art from religion and Reformed societies moved towards more "secular" forms of art which might be said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural dazzler of His creation and by depicting people who were created in His epitome",^[24] Counter-Reformation Catholic church connected to encourage religious fine art, but insisted it was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Catholic traditions, including the sacraments and the saints.^[25] Likewise, "Lutheran places of worship incorporate images and sculptures non only of Christ just also of biblical and occasionally of other saints as well as prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained glass, ornate furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modern compages, carved or otherwise embellished altar pieces, and liberal apply of candles on the altar and elsewhere."^[26] The principal divergence between Lutheran and Roman Cosmic places of worship was the presence of the tabernacle in the latter.^[26]

Sydney Joseph Freedberg, who invented the term Counter-Maniera, cautions against connecting this more ascetic style in religious painting, which spread from Rome from near 1550, also direct with the decrees of Trent, as information technology pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees as "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come to be conspicuous in Roman culture".^[27]

Scipione Pulzone'south (1550–1598) painting of the Lamentation which was commissioned for the Church of the Gesù in 1589 is a Counter-Maniera work that gives a articulate demonstration of what the holy quango was striving for in the new style of religious fine art. With the focus of the painting giving directly attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human.

Ten years after the Council of Trent's prescript Paolo Veronese was summoned by the Inquisition to explain why his Final Supper, a huge canvas for the refectory of a monastery, contained, in the words of the Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" every bit well as extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast.^[28] Veronese was told that he must change his indecorous painting within a three-month menstruum – in fact he just changed the championship to The Feast in the Firm of Levi, still an episode from the Gospels, but a less doctrinally key 1, and no more was said.^[29] No doubt any Protestant authorities would have been as disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "donor portraits" (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting being placed within the painting) was also accelerated; these get rare afterward the Council.

Repentance of Peter by El Greco, 1580–1586.

Further waves of "Counter-Reformation art" occurred when areas formerly Protestant were again brought under Catholic rule. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could represent a nail time for artists. The best known instance is the new Castilian Netherlands (substantially modern Kingdom of belgium), which had been the centre of Protestantism in kingdom of the netherlands but became (initially) exclusively Catholic subsequently the Spanish drove the Protestants to the north, where they established the United Provinces. Rubens was one of a number of Flemish Baroque painters who received many commissions, and produced several of his best known works re-filling the empty churches.^[thirty] Several cities in France in the French wars of organized religion and in Germany, Bohemia and elsewhere in the Thirty Years War saw similar bursts of restocking.

The rather extreme pronouncement by a synod in Antwerp in 1610 that in futurity the central panels of altarpieces should only evidence New Attestation scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by Rubens and other Flemish artists (and in item the Jesuits continued to commission altarpieces centred on their saints), but nonetheless New Testament subjects probably did increase.^[31] Altarpieces became larger and more piece of cake to make out from a distance, and the large painted or aureate carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern tardily medieval cities were often replaced with paintings.^[32]

Some subjects were given increased prominence to reflect Counter-Reformation emphases. The Repentance of Peter, showing the end of the episode of the Deprival of Peter, was not often seen earlier the Counter-Reformation, when it became popular as an assertion of the sacrament of Confession confronting Protestant attacks. This followed an influential book by the Jesuit Key Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621). The image typically shows Peter in tears, as a half-length portrait with no other figures, often with hands clasped as at correct, and sometimes "the cock" in the background; it was often coupled with a repentant Mary Magdalen, another exemplar from Bellarmine's book.^[33]

Every bit the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Cosmic Church building felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation, Rome in one case again began to assert its universality to other nations effectually the earth. The religious order of the Jesuits or the Club of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, India and eastern Asia and used the arts as an effective means of articulating their message of the Cosmic Church's dominance over the Christian organized religion. The Jesuits' bear upon was and so profound during their missions of the time that today very similar styles of art from the Counter-Reformation period in Catholic Churches are establish all over the world.

Despite the differences in approaches to religious art, stylistic developments passed about every bit chop-chop across religious divisions as within the 2 "blocs". Artistically Rome remained in closer affect with the Netherlands than with Kingdom of spain.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Spicer, Andrew (5 Dec 2016). Lutheran Churches in Early Modernistic Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 237. ISBN9781351921169. As it adult in due north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography fix in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph painted in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.5.).
2. ^ ^{a b c d east f} Lamport, Marker A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593. Lutherans connected to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day ane finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and compages survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the aboriginal, apostolic church, sought to defend also every bit reform the use of images. "An empty, white-done church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ'south existent presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics simply from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, yous give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; nosotros are going to boom you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of fine art continued to exist displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's theologia crucis. ... In dissimilarity, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic entreatment, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also by and large absent.
3. ^ The Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Historicist and Causes of the Reformation. New Advent.
4. ^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (16 December 2011). Historical Dictionary of Calvinism. Scarecrow Press. p. 1. ISBN9780810872240. While Germany and the Scandinavian countries adopted the Lutheran model of church and land, France, Switzerland, holland, Hungary, what is at present the Czech Democracy, and Scotland created Reformed Churches based, in varying means, on the model Calvin set up up in Geneva. Although England pursued the Reformation ideal in its own way, leading to the formation of the Anglican Communion, the theology of the Thirty-Ix Manufactures of the Church of England were heavily influenced by Calvinism.
5. ^ Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000). Holbein and the Reformation of Art. University of California, Berkeley.
6. ^ Marquardt, Janet T.; Jordan, Alyce A. (14 Jan 2009). Medieval Art and Architecture after the Middle Ages. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN9781443803984. In fact, Lutherans often justified their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is evident from the case of the chantry of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church building of Doberan.
7. ^ Michalski, 89
8. ^ Dixon, C. Scott (nine March 2012). Battling the Reformation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN9781118272305. Co-ordinate to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran fine art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
9. ^ Noble, 19, annotation 12
10. ^ Institutes, i:eleven, section 7 on crosses
11. ^ Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries, p. 193, 1990, Yale, ISBN 0300046758; Hales was the brother of John Hales (died 1572)
12. ^ Michalski, 87-88
13. ^ Michalski, 73-74
14. ^ Michalski, 72-73
15. ^ Michalski, 84. Google books
16. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (1 January 2010). Gardner's Fine art through the Ages: A Concise History of Western Art. Cengage Learning. p. 254. ISBN9781424069224. In an episode known equally the Great Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Cosmic churches in the netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, dandy statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived as idolatrous.
17. ^ Marshall, Peter (22 October 2009). The Reformation. Oxford University Printing. p. 114. ISBN9780191578885. Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist '2nd Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant epitome-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might accept hoped to make common crusade.
18. ^ Mattox, Mickey Fifty.; Roeber, A. G. (27 February 2012). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Chat. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN9780802866943. In this "sacramental union," Lutherans taught, the body and blood of Christ are so truly united to the bread and vino of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more than-over, not just for the strengthening of religion, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely every bit an balls of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the wedlock of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate marriage with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy body and blood.
19. ^ Trevor-Roper, 98-101 on Rudolf, and Strong, Pt. two, Chapter 3 on France, specially pp. 98-101, 112-113.
20. ^ Fine art in Renaissance Italia. Paoletti, John T., and Gary M. Radke. Pg. 514.
21. ^ Text of the 25th prescript of the Council of Trent
22. ^ Edgeless Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660, chapter Eight, specially pp. 107-128, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0-19-881050-4
23. ^ The death of Medieval Fine art Excerpt from book by Émile Mâle
24. ^ Art of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Nosotro, Rit.
25. ^ The Art of the Counter Reformation. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
26. ^ ^{a b} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593.
27. ^ (Sidney) Freedberg, 427–428, 427 quoted
28. ^ "Transcript of Veronese's testimony". Archived from the original on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2007-03-26 .
29. ^ David Rostand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, 2d ed 1997, Cambridge UP ISBN 0-521-56568-5
30. ^ (David) Freedberg, throughout
31. ^ (David) Freedberg, 139-140
32. ^ (David) Freedberg, 141
33. ^ Hall, pp. 10 and 315

References [edit]

• David Freedberg, "Painting and the Counter-Reformation", from the catalogue to The Age of Rubens, 1993, Boston/Toledo, Ohio, online PDF
• Freedburg, Sidney J. Painting in Italia, 1500–1600, 3rd edn. 1993, Yale, ISBN 0300055870
• James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-iv
• Michalski, Sergiusz. Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-41425-Ten, 9780203414255 Google Books
• Noble, Bonnie (2009). Lucas Cranach the Elder: Art and Devotion of the German Reformation. University Press of America. ISBN978-0-7618-4337-5.
• Roy Strong; Art and Ability; Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650, 1984, The Boydell Printing;ISBN 0-85115-200-seven
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Credo at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-6

Further reading [edit]

• Avalli-Bjorkman, Gorel. "A Bolognese Portrait of a Butcher." The Burlington Mag 141 (1999).
• Caldwell, Dorigen. "Reviewing Counter-Reformation Art." v Feb. 2007 [1].
• Christensen, Carl C. "Fine art and the Reformation in Federal republic of germany." The Sixteenth Century Journal Athens: Ohio UP, 12 (1979): 100.
• Coulton, G G. "Art and the Reformation Reviews." Art Message 11 (1928).
• Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Market in Early on Modern Antwerp. New Haven: Yale Up, 1998.
• Koerner, Joseph Fifty. The Reformation of the Image. London: The University of Chicago P, 2004.
• Knipping, John Baptist, Iconography of the Counter Reformation in the Netherlands: Sky on Earth 2 vols, 1974
• Mayor, A. Hyatt, "The Art of the Counter Reformation." The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art Bulletin 4 (1945).
• Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: the Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Marketplace. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania P, 2006.
• Wisse, Jacob. "The Reformation." In Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000- [two] (October 2002).

External links [edit]

• Review of The Reformation of the Image by Joseph Leo Koerner, by Eamon Duffy, London Review of Books

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation

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